Environmental Psychology
QUESTIONS ON
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
These assignments call
for active reading. As you read,
ask yourself: What is the author's point?
What do I think about it? Why do
I feel that way? Am I alone in these
reactions or would others respond the same way?
Take notes as you go. (I find it useful to highlight or underline
as I read, and I make brief notes in the margins.) Be sure to prepare responses to the
discussion questions but don't limit yourself to these questions.
Your reactions, ideas, and notes
must be prepared in advance and brought to class for use as we review the
assigned material. Your instructor will collect and review your notes so that you will receive credit
for the work. (Alternatively, you can e-mail your notes to the instructor
before the beginning of class: dec1@humboldt.edu )
Gifford, Chapter 1. The Nature and Scope of Environmental Psychology.
This is an
intro chapter that explains what “environmental psychology” means, then
provides a brief overview of theoretical approaches.
1. First, let’s try a little
experiment. Read the passage at http://www.humboldt.edu/~campbell/Two_Campers.htm
. Pause for a moment to consider your feelings, then report your reactions.
Next, read the poem at http://www.humboldt.edu/~campbell/Front_Lines.htm
. Again review your reactions and record them here.
I think people can be sorted
out on a scale of “environmental sensitivity”—with some highly tuned into
issues of place and others relatively insensitive to their surroundings. Given
the strength and complexity of your reactions to these readings, where might you place yourself
on such a scale? Finally, how do you think your “score” on this trait would
compare with our class average (i.e., do you think you are above average, right
on the mean, or below average in environmental sensitivity)?
2. What did you think “environmental psychology” was about before enrolling in this course? In what ways does Gifford’s definition of the field expand your understanding of environmental psychology?
3. Which of “the roots and edges” of environmental psychology are most interesting to you (and what makes them so)? Did you follow up any of the footnotes to learn more? (If not, what might get students to engage in this extended inquiry?)
4. The author explains that
environmental psychology has been concerned with the effects of the environment
on human behavior as well as the effects of human behavior upon the
environment. Which of these two is of greater interest to you—put differently,
which would you like to see given greater emphasis in this course? (In
questions of this type, you should also try to give reasons why you feel as you do.)
5. Summarize the
prevailing theoretical approaches in environmental psychology (in your
own words, of course). If you were going to prepare a term paper on one
of these approaches, which one would you select? What thoughts would
guide your selection?
6. If I want to do research that involves observing people in public settings and recording my observations, I shouldn’t have to worry about ethics. Right? (Remember to explain and support your answer.) If interested, you’ll find the ethics code for psychologists at http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html .
7. What’s happening now in
environmental psyc research? Check out
the titles of articles in recent issues of Journal
of Environmental Psychology by doing the following:
--Go to library.humboldt.edu
--Select “Journal and
Newspaper Finder”
--Type in the journal name
and enter
--Select “Go” for fulltext
without entering year, volume, etc. to get list of issues
8. Want more? Check out the
sites for the following resources in behavior-environment studies and record your reactions in your notes:
International Association for
People-Environment Studies. http://www.iaps-association.org/
Newsletter for the
Environmental Psychology Division of the International Association for Applied
Psychology. http://www.psy.gu.se/iaap/IAAP_newsletter.htm
Journal of Environmental
Psychology. http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622872/description#description
Environmental Design Research
Association. http://edra.org/
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 1. Earth's Environmental Problems & the Role of Human Behavior.
I think this
is a great opening chapter. You should start with the preface (page xiii) which
explains the authors’ intent. Note the key questions in the second paragraph—we
could spend all period just hashing over the implications of these few
sentences.
1. As you look at the photo
on page 2, do you get a sense of the earth as “a small island…our only home...alone
in an otherwise lifeless solar system?”
Perhaps this relates to where you placed yourself on the environmental
sensitivity dimension.
2. The authors mention that
Earth Day 1970 was an important international event for environmentalists. But
probably more important is the realization of “ominous” problems that have
emerged since that milestone event. To
what are the authors referring?
3. So there are 6.1 billion
of us—just a number. Suppose you were to do a census, counting everyone at a
rate of 1 person per second (24 hours continuous, no sleeping, no
union-sanctioned breaks). Use the calculator on your computer. How much time
would you need for this census job?
4. The authors note that
disturbing alterations of the nitrogen cycle are in the initial stages of
discovery (far behind our understanding of the carbon cycle). But really they
are trying to make a deeper point. Can you put it in words?
5. PBS ran a hugely popular
series on TV called The American Experience. What if they produced a series
called The Human Experiment. Think it
would sell?
6 “The behavioral components
of environmental problems have…been largely ignored by natural and physical
scientists, engineers, and government policymakers.” And when they do
acknowledge the need to understand human motivation, “they often draw
conclusions based on their intuitive understanding, as if understanding human
behavior does not require the same careful methods of study needed to
understand ecosystems or climate—experimentation, mathematical modeling, and
the other systematic tools of science.”
The above quoted passage would suggest
that professionals in the world of science and engineering have “an attitude”
about psychologists, sociologists, and economists—perhaps as soft-headed posers
when they refer to themselves as behavioral and social scientists. Think there’s some truth to this? (Perhaps you know of
some science majors who have expressed an attitude about psychology majors.)
7. Want to quarrel with the labeling
of some of the statements on Table 1-1 (page 6) as “myths”? Which ones should
not be considered myths?
8. “Changing the
resource-using and polluting behavior of individuals, even if perfectly
effective methods could be found, would not eliminate most pollution.” That
statement should stop you in your tracks.
What is the authors’ point?
9. While I have no specific
questions over the section on global warming, ozone layer depletion, and loss
of tropical forests, plan on reviewing the main points in these sections.
10. The developing nations of
the world emulate the developed nations and appear to be doing everything they
can to achieve our high level of material wealth. We should discuss this in
view of the ecological capital concept and the “I=PAT” model. Record some
thoughts here for discussion.
11. The section on
exponential population growth seemed pretty straightforward, but Box 1-2 on
momentum in growth provided a more subtle point—especially as it applied to the
manufacture of cars, construction of buildings, and the building of sewers,
roads, and other infrastructure. Does this have any implications for how you
should vote—e.g., voting on bond issues that fund improvements in our water
supply, highways, etc.?
Gifford, Chapter 2. Environmental Perception & Spatial Cognition
When you think
about it, there has to be some sort of interface between you and your
environment—some boundary mechanism that separates you from the “not-you” and
yet allows you to know what’s out there in your surroundings. This interface is
handled nicely by your sense organs which allow you to develop an internal
representation (a “perception”) of your environment. Based on that internal
representation (call it a cognitive
map), you make decisions about how to proceed through your day, how to find
your way to class, avoid obstacles, select a secluded spot to read about
environmental psychology, etc. Given this, no study of behavior-environment
relationships would be complete without devoting some time to the topic of
environmental perception.
1. Begin by making a quick sketch of your home town on a sheet of paper. Doing
this at the outset will make the reading more interesting.
2. When you get to the description of Lynch's work, analyze your sketch in terms of his five
elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks.
3. We will discuss in class the notion of
legibility. Some cities are highly legible (e.g.,
4. After
reading about gender differences in spatial cognition, consider how you
typically provide directions. Are you more inclined to
emphasize landmarks (“Turn right at the MiniMart and continue
until past the
high school. It’s the green house on your left.”) or
compass points and
distances (“Turn north on
5. On the topic of wayfinding, have you noticed
that some people appear to opt out of the task altogether? I’m thinking of
people with GPS devices in their cars; they would rather follow the GPS directions
(however indirect) rather than use their own understanding of how to get to the
destination.
*** We might discuss the desirability of grid
designs as opposed to complex designs in the layout of city streets. (a
trade-off between easy wayfinding and interest?)
6. Go to Baddesigns.com, select the index (http://baddesigns.com/examples.html
), and examine some of the signage problems in the “Signs, Names, & Labels”
category. With such bad designs in mind, can you recall ever standing before a
you-are-here map and feeling that the map is doing more harm than good?
(consider those that violate the forward-up equivalence principle, p. 93)
*** You might go back to http://baddesigns.com/ and check out some of the other examples. It has to be one of the most entertaining human factors/ergonomics/human engineering sites on the web!
7. Do
you think driving while talking on a cell phone creates environmental numbness?
Gifford, Chapter 5. Personal Space.
Much of the material in your Gifford text reviews the effects of “things” in the environment upon or behavior and mental experience. Now we take a look at effects of the lack of things in your environment. That is, we look at empty space (interpersonal spacing).
1. Note the personal space zones of
anthropologist E. T. Hall. These sound appropriate to you?
2. Comment on the situational determinants of personal space (attraction, similarity, pleasantness). To what extent does your personal experience confirm the findings in this section?
3. Review the research findings
on cultural and ethnic differences. Same goes with the research on gender
differences. Note whether your personal experience confirms these
findings.
4. Be ready to discuss the differences between
sociopetal and sociofugal seating arrangements. You should be able to describe
at least one experiment on these concepts and plan to review the findings in
class.
5. Where should you sit if you want to have high
influence in a group?
6. What are the consequences of inappropriate
spacing?
Gifford, Chapter 4. Personality and Environment.
Personality research has the goal of differentiating between people--in a sense, sorting people into "types." Considerable research has gone into identifying appropriate dimensions or traits for this purpose. This chapter reviews the efforts to differentiate among people with regard to the environment. While no specific questions are listed here, you should include in your notes a developed response to at least two points from each of the four main sections of this chapter. Be ready to share your work with the class.
[We may use some of our class time to administer and interpret one or more questionnaires mentioned in your reading.]
Gifford, Chapter 15. Designing More Fitting Environments.
If we are to talk intelligently about the built environment, we should have some understanding of architects and planners. This chapter gives you some background regarding the perspective of professionals in the arena of environmental design.
2. When we think “Architecture,” monumental constructions like large buildings and bridges come to mind. In other words, architecture is about buildings as art. But then there is "social design" which evokes concepts of folk design and primitive architecture. Where are you on this dichotomy?
3. One could make the argument that modern building design has resulted in “high dependence on technology.” After all, the professional building designers are the experts and they know the most about current building technology. Do you consider this a good or a bad thing?
(This is a brief set of reading questions on a pithy chapter. Be sure to add your own comments on other topics from this assignment.)
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 2. Earth's Environmental Problems as Tragedies of the Commons.
If the
“tragedy of the commons” (TOC) metaphor is new to you, then this is a
particularly important week for you. If it is old news, then this is your
opportunity to take a much more analytical look at this concept. My plan is for
you to read Gardner and Stern’s discussion of the TOC notion, read Hardin’s
original paper (if you have never done so), and then look at several
TOC-related papers to extend your understanding.
1. In reading chapter 2, be ready to comment on
such points as:
2. The authors describe four
types of TOC solution. Summarize each approach and append some thoughts that
come to mind for each (good solution, possibly viable, not a chance,
etc….). See if you can add to this short
list.
4. Take a look at Note 5 on page 32. Hardin says
“Conscience is self-eliminating.” That’s quite a statement. Your thoughts?
5. The authors say that the Alaskan king crab
population has recovered. Do a quick computer search to verify this. Could we
get king crab for a class food fest? How much per pound?
6. If you have never read the original TOC
article by Hardin, please do so now. (It’s never a good idea to argue about a
book/article/movie that you’ve never actually seen yourself.) You’ll find it
easily on the web; for example http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/162/3859/1243
7. Look on our Moodle course site and you will
see that I have uploaded three articles for you (seems a reasonable load
considering that the B&S chapter is only 10 pages long). I don’t expect you
to read every word of each article but spend enough time with each to get the
general message and to jot down several points that you can respond to. I think
the Burke article in particular will yield a number of discussion points for
you. The three articles are:
8. Perhaps the best of recent compilations of
TOC research is Drama of the Commons
published by National Academies Press. You can read it free at http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309082501/html/index.html
(chapter 4 deals with the psychological research) or click on the book icon and
download selected chapters in PDF at $2.20 each.
Gifford, Chapter 3. Environmental Attitudes, Appraisals, and Assessments.
1. To some people, the solution to our environmental problems is quite straightforward and simple. First find a way to measure our attitudes towards the environment. Then develop a way to change these attitudes in a proenvironmental direction and the needed behavior change will follow. The logic is so simple that most people would say this is just common sense. The path to behavior change is through attitude change. As you read through this chapter, record your thoughts and impressions. When done, provide an assessment of the common sense logic I have just provided.
2. The second half of this chapter addresses the topic of environmental appraisal. Your appraisal of a place is not the same as an attitude. Places can evoke emotions. They can be beautiful. They can have meaning for you. Develop a list of places that in your experience score high on some of the appraisal dimensions or themes in this chapter (e.g., aesthetically beautiful, deeply moving, high in mystery or complexity). Be prepared to discuss these with the class.3. Of what use are environmental assessments?
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 3. Religious & Moral Approaches: Changing Values, Beliefs, & Worldviews.
This is one of
my favorite chapters because it gets at feelings
about the environment instead of just environmental facts. I’ll be interested in your thoughts.
1. Which lines of the Chief Seattle speech
struck you as most moving? After reading
it, compare with a translation of the chief’s actual speech at http://www.halcyon.com/arborhts/chiefsea.html
. It bears little resemblance to the one in your text, dealing with racial
differences and ancestors instead of the environment, but clearly the chief was
one heck of an orator. The paragraph used by Perry will be obvious. [Other
related sources: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/fake.html
(which suggests that even the original translation may be fake), and http://www.snopes.com/quotes/seattle.htm
(which provides the full Ted Perry version).]
2. Note how “religion” is analyzed in terms of
values, beliefs, ethics, rituals, and spirits. It has been argued that
Judeo-Christian religion is antienvironment. After reading about the sections
on established religions and the environment, would you agree with this
argument? What about the other major religions? Might a mass conversion to one
of them (or proclamation of it as the official state religion) help with our
ecological threats?
3. “The sickness of the earth reflects the
sickness in the soul of modern industrial man, whose whole life is given over
to gain, to the disease of endless getting and spending…” So how sick are you,
your family, and your friends? Any ideas for how to treat this sickness? (Or
would you prefer to argue that the argument implicit in this quotation is
invalid?)
4. Table 3-3, p. 43. So a belief that nature is
sacred because it is created by God is associated with low proenvironmental beliefs. Can you think of an explanation for
this unexpected finding?
5. You should be able to sum up the findings on
Judeo-Christian religious beliefs/practices and proenvironmental attitudes.
6. Record your thoughts about each of the
following:
7. Make sure you understand Merchants three
value orientations: egocentric, homocentric, and ecocentric.
8. Note the strong and growing support for
environmental issues in the polls.
9. You have the NEP items in Table 3-8, p.
63. You might consider how you would
score using a 1-5 rating scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree).
10. Table 3-9, p. 64, is an important one for
this chapter. The authors report that research shows homocentric and ecocentric
are combined in the minds of most Americans (rather than being competing value
orientations). Any idea how these might be disengaged?
12. I guess the EPA must be considered
homocentric now that it accepts risk management analyses in environmental
policy development. Right?
Gifford, Chapter 11. Educational Environmental Psychology.
1.
4. What would you recommend to entering freshmen regarding where to sit in class?
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 4. Educational Interventions: Changing Attitudes & Providing Information.
Much
of the information in this chapter is research based and is pretty
straightforward. Still you should find something to comment upon. And
at
the very least, you should prepare notes and reactions that correspond
to the
questions listed below.
1. The information from 50 Simple Things suggests a brief
experiment that I would like you to try. Essentially I would like you to verify
the claim regarding shower heads and water use.
a. Take a bucket or other container into the shower, turn
on to normal shower flow, and let it
fill for a set time, say 15 or 30 seconds. Step out of the shower and measure
the amount of water collected. Calculate the gal/min flow rate. E.g., if 15
seconds, multiply the amount of water by 4 to get the “per minute” rate.
b. Take your normal shower but measure the time taken
(don’t count time needed to get warm water to reach your shower). Then
calculate the amount of water used (gal/min flow rate multiplied by number of
minutes in the shower).
c. Note whether your have a low-flo or regular shower
head installed.
d. How do your findings compare with the information in
your text? Bring your data to class and we’ll make a frequency distribution.
2. Its common sense that educating people on an
issue is the way to change their behavior. Providing factual information leads
to change in attitudes and beliefs which leads to changed intentions to behave
and finally to actual behavior change. This is so obvious to everyone that it
is making me sleepy to even state it here. But then your authors state that
this common sense approach is “oversimplified and misleading”—implying that a
lot of folks applying good old common sense are just plain wrong. Perhaps you
have some reactions.
3. Note that the authors don’t address
environmental education in the schools. You might speculate on the effect of
school-based environmental lessons targeting children. Consider your own
educational experiences.
4. The
5. What is the role of external barriers (see
box on p. 77) in explaining the attitude-behavior discrepancy? (Note that Table
4-2 on p. 79 is particularly important in sorting out internal and external
barriers to behavioral action congruent with pro-environment attitudes and intentions.)
6. See p. 80. What’s this stuff about lowering
the heat setting when people are sleeping or gone for the day? Shouldn’t the
furnace be completely off (not simply lowered)? Why heat an empty house or one
with unconscious people under warm blankets? Where is the external barrier—you
simply walk over to the thermostat and switch it off!
7. Note the following:
a. Effect of bill stuffers on energy use.
b. Effect of computerized energy audits.
c. Effect of personal
energy audits.
d. Effect of short-term feedback on behavior.
e. Effect of modeling.
f. Effect of framing.
g. Effect of prompts.
h. Effect of reminders.
Gifford, Chapter 6. Territoriality.
1. What spaces would you consider to be your own territory?
2. In what ways have you personalized or “marked” your territory?
3. What have you done to defend your territory?
4. Any family stories (or roommate stories) about boundary disputes?
5. What are the main elements of Oscar Newman’s theory of defensible space?
6. Do you think we have a genetic predisposition to establish and defend territories? What does the research say about this issue?
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 5. Changing the Incentives.
1. Paul Stern reviews the thinking that has led
to his current mode of transportation to work. I think each of us has a similar
story to tell. Write yours down and we’ll compare notes in class. (Do you bike,
walk, or use public transportation to get to school and work? If not, lay out
the reasons why—and be honest!). The information on Table 5-1 (p. 102) might be
of help.
2. If you hold proenvironmental attitudes but
use a car for transportation, then some would call you a hypocrite. Your
authors say no. Explain the reasoning here.
3. Using Fred Skinner’s operant conditioning
theory, provide two reasons why people get trapped in the tragedy of the
commons.
4. Explain the notion of “internalizing the
externalities” making reference to the free rider problem. (Sounds like an
excellent test question, doesn’t it?)
5. The authors note that structural barriers to
getting people out of their personal cars are simply too strong, hence the
alternative effort to make these personal vehicles more efficient. Do you agree
with this analysis?
6. You probably have experience with community
recycling in at least two communities—previous home town and Arcata. If so,
which community has the more effective recycling program? Would you be in favor
of learning the “Arcata stomp”? [Separately, maybe you have comments on the
popularity of that Arlo Guthrie song about getting caught for dumping
trash—probably from the
7. From your experience as a renter, note
whether your energy bill was based on individual meters or a single meter for
the whole building (or both). Comment on the resulting effects on individual
energy use.
8. The experimental shared-saving conservation
program developed for
9. The section called “principles for designing
effective incentives” summarizes what we have learned about the application of
incentives in addressing the issues of transportation, recycling, and energy
use. Summarize this summary using your own words and be prepared to discuss it.
(E.g., we could discuss the problem of evasion—mannequins and picking up riders
at bus stops, stealing recyclable materials from recycling bins, etc. Or the
point about evolving research—what Kurt Lewin would call action research. Or the idea of involving the targets of behavioral
change in the design and implementation of the program.)
10. The success of organized grass-roots action in getting McDonald’s to stop using Styrofoam food containers deserves comment. Be sure to record your reactions and ideas for organizing to address other environmental problems.
Gifford, Chapter 7. Crowding.
1.
1. The notion of community management of a
desired resource applies to a variety of resources. Consider surfers
controlling their favorite breaks and neighborhood gangs controlling their
particular form of “business.”
2. The value of rule determination by insiders
cannot be understated. Consider the sense of ownership and motivation to comply
when you have a part in determining rules and their enforcement. (This point is
mentioned at several places in the chapter.)
3. The value of strong community ties and a
“thick” social network was made several places in this chapter. Unfortunately
the strength of social norms in small communities is associated with repression
of individual freedom of expression, exclusion of women, distrust of outsiders,
and so on. Your thoughts? (Perhaps you see a resolution.)
4. On p. 138, the authors provide references to
support the claim that training in economics is associated with an increase in
the type of egoistic behavior that leads to the tragedy of the commons effect.
If you have taken courses in economics (or know any econ majors), you should
comment on this assertion.
5. The authors suggest that there may be an
incompatibility between the global economy and the health of the global
environment (p. 146). Comment on the viability of Lovins’ “soft energy path” as
a solution.
6. Provide some personal reactions to the two points made on p. 148: (1) globalization of markets has freed us from dependence on local resources, and (2) people often chose to move frequently rather then remain in the same community all their lives.
Gifford, Chapter 8. Privacy.
1.
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 7. Combining the Solution Strategies.
I expect everyone to produce their own discussion notes on this chapter. Some ideas I think appropriate for discussion include:
1. The importance of a multi-method approach in
developing environmental action programs.
2. The parallels between ecological diagnosis
and “addressing conditions beyond the individual that constrain
proenvironmental choice.”
3. The environmental advantages associated with
“smart growth” in community planning and the expected downside of such a
policy.
4. Potential hazards in zealously promoting a
proposed social action program in order to acquire funding.
5. Summative vs. formative evaluation and the
notion of program implementation as an ongoing social experiment.
6. Problems in combining the participatory
approach with rigorous scientific evaluative research.
7. Staying within people’s limits of
acceptance—democracy vs. autocracy.
8. The West German experiment in combining
technical information with participatory decision-making.
9. Striving for research that can “separate common sense from common nonsense and make uncommon sense more common.”
Gifford, Chapter 9. Residential Environmental Psychology.
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 8. Stone Age Genetic Behavioral Predispositions in the Space Age.
The question raised in this chapter is whether our genetic tendencies
(based on evolution) should be taken into account in developing environmental
policies and programs.
1. Make sure you can explain the biophilia
hypothesis.
2. Of the different types of biophilia evidence
presented by the authors, which strikes you as most persuasive?
3. Note the three criteria for inferring genetic
cause (Table 8-4, p. 188). You should be able to explain each.
4. Describe the conflict between egoistic and
altruistic depictions of human natural selection. Do you find one more
persuasive?
5. Make sure you can explain the selfish gene
and inclusive fitness theories.
6. Both egoism and inclusive fitness spell doom
for the environment. But reciprocal altruism offers hope—right?
7. To what extent does Simon’s theory of
docility (p.199) offer hope for us.
8. What do you think of the argument that we are
programmed to experience denial. Does this mean we’re doomed?
9. Ornstein and Ehrlich discuss the idea that we
are programmed to be sensitive to short-term changes, not to slow, gradual
change (like ecological trends). Your reaction?
10. Somewhat related to the above point, we are quick to judge based on what we can see and hear. We then perceive selectively to maintain the consistency of our first impressions. And we tend to simplify issues in our discussions (ideas are good or bad, right or wrong, etc.). Do you see implications here for our ability to make effective decisions regarding the environment?
Gifford, Chapter 13. Natural Environmental Psychology.
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 9. Human Reactions to Environmental Hazards: Perceptual & Cognitive Processes.
This is a long chapter crammed with information.
Fortunately the authors have put extra effort into organizing it with preview
sections, midsection summaries, and recaps. While the redundancy may grate on a
few of you, most should appreciate the effort to maintain clarity.
1. After reading about overreactions (p. 210+),
can you see any ways to use secondary bias to address environmental problems?
(E.g., how about color photos of baby polar bears in trouble!)
2. Prepare some notes here for a comparison of
risk perception by scientists and by the general public. You might consider the
quotation, “The general public is irrational, uninformed, superstitious, even
stupid…It doesn’t understand probability, is...biased by the news media, and…has
a fear of some technologies that borders on the primeval” (pp. 212-213).
3. How responsible is the news media? (p. 217)
4. Hardin says it’s time to get out of the cave
and stop cowering from the many threats. How does this relate to the work of Slovic et al.? (p. 220+)
5. Summarize the contribution of Taylor &
Brown, then see if you can extend it to the argument
that we underreact to environmental threats because
we think scientists and the government can control them (or at
least protect us from resulting harm and damages).
6. Stress theory: we can’t control the stressor
so we reduce stress reactions by denial. Hmmm—your reactions?
7. It’s not that we are
basically stupid; we just think poorly. See if you can evaluate this statement
(maybe with reference to the gambler’s fallacy, availability heuristic, difficulty dealing effectively with events we haven’t
experienced). Pp. 229-230.
8. Would you agree that the general public is
overreacting to the hazards associated with nuclear power and underestimating
the comparative net benefits of this power source? (see
discussion on pp. 230-232).
9. We don’t get many double whammies in HSU
courses, but you got one on p. 233. Would you agree that it is a serious one?
10. Here’s a thought exercise: Produce an
original example of the use of framing effects for use in a PSA about an
environment threat. Pp. 233-234.
11. Fault trees with missing limbs? What’s that
all about? (I.e., what is the point of the “missing limbs”?) p.
236.
12. You read about the influence of WOM (p. 238).
Given that, what is the value of education? Could we have a reason here to
require all students to take a couple of statistics courses?
13. Make sure you understand where the research
stands on the value of scare tactics in persuasion efforts (education,
advertising, etc.). You might make reference to the research on Scared
Straight. P. 240.
14. Here’s a nice essay item. Evaluate the following statement: People’s judgments of risk are based more on considerations of morality and justice than on dispassionate threat appraisal.
Gifford, Chapter 10. Urban Environmental Psychology
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 10. Choosing the Behaviors to Change and the Points of Intervention.
In this chapter we find out which environmentally-relevant human actions are suitable targets for change efforts and which ones are trivial targets.
1. One implication that comes from this chapter is that we need to
put more energy into evaluating, ranking, and prioritizing things—things such
as research questions, potential thesis topics, and target behaviors to change.
We need to put more effort into determining which battles to fight and which
issues to address. (The assumption, of course, is that you want your efforts to
be maximally effective.) Sounds like a perfect opportunity to apply what you
learned in your critical thinking class. Your comments?
2. As you read through the initial arguments in this chapter, be
thinking of your own efforts to be environmentally responsible—with regard to
personal habits, household “rules,” choices of transportation, etc. How did
you score in avoiding actions that produce only minor savings?
3. Try asking a few acquaintances to “name things they know of that
a family could do to reduce energy consumption in the home?” See if you get the
same results as Kempton et al. (pp. 262-264).
4. If the general public knew that their curtailment efforts result
in little energy savings (but significant sacrifices in comfort and
convenience), then they might conclude that energy conservation just doesn’t work
and become unreceptive to future conservation programs (end of
5. Here’s a neat test item. Explain and provide examples to
illustrate the full meaning and implications of the following assertion: Waste prevention is generally preferable to
reuse, which is preferable to recycling, which is preferable to discarding.
6. Make some notes in preparation for a discussion of ways to adopt
or support upstream solutions to
social and environmental problems on campus and in the surrounding community.
7. Note the two causal models in
8. The authors really got into their criticism of Earth Day and
associated publications. Do you find yourself in agreement with them?
Gifford, Chapter 12. Workplace Environmental Psychology.
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 11. Human Interactions with Complex Systems: "Normal" Accidents and Counterintuitive System Behavior.
If you like systems theory, you’ll love these final two chapters. The reading begins with analysis of complex technological systems. The issue here is whether we humans (with our limited information processing capacities) can control complex technological systems. Once we have a provisional answer to this question, we move on to human management of complex environmental systems. This will be unfamiliar material for many of you—but fascinating all the same.
1. After reading through the description of the TMI accident, take a
look at the following:
http://www.nucleartourist.com/systems/control_rooms.htm Nuclear power plant systems are controlled
via control rooms. The trick is to
design the displays and controls in these rooms so that operating engineers
make the right decisions. As this website indicates, errors from information
overload can be a problem.
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html Official government description of the
incident. Nice diagram of the facility near the bottom of the page.
http://www.ida.liu.se/~her/npp/demo.html Try your hand at controlling the system
(takes a moment to load). Turn up your speakers.
2. Explain the concept of “normal” accidents.
3. Discuss Jay Forrester’s ideas applied to the demise of communism
in the USSR (“Russia”).
4. Be ready to discuss and elaborate on the idea that there is a serious
mismatch between the characteristics of environmentally-relevant complex
systems we interact with (or attempt to manage) and the characteristics of the
human mind (and of human institutions).
(Adapted from quotation on p. 282.)
5. In what way was the improbable string of 12 mishaps befalling the
Transhuron actually probable?
6. Comment on Perrow’s 4 characteristics for normal accidents.
(Surprising? Convincing? Compelling? BS? plus reasons)
7. Describe and evaluate Jay Forrester’s argument regarding complex
systems.
8. Your opinion on the implications of counterintuitive property #3
for our democratic form of government?
Gifford, Chapter 14. Sustainability: Managing Limited Resources.
This chapter from Gifford gives us an initial encounter with research and thinking that is treated in detail by Gardner and Stern.Gifford, Epilogue. Utopia versus Entopia.
1. Which passage from this epilogue was most meaningful to you?
Gardner & Stern, Chapter 11. Human Interactions with Complex Systems: Chaos, Self-Organization, and the Global Environmental Future.
This final chapter says we may be in for chaos. It
winds everything up with some things we can do to prevent environmental
catastrophe.
1. If chaos theory was unclear from the
authors’ description, look it up at wikipedia.com and see if that helps: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory
2. See if you can articulate the parallel
between the “butterfly effect” and the notion of an ecological system
exhibiting chaotic behavior. (p. 318)
3. Explain and discuss briefly the idea that
chaos theory contradicts the assumption that humans, even with powerful
computer models, can understand and successfully manage complex systems. (p.
319)
4. Explain and comment upon Lindblom’s notions
of disjointed incrementalism (DI). (p. 325)
Include in this discussion the authors’ problem with DI when applied to
ecological systems. (p. 326)
5. Note that antichaos forces (forces toward
restoration and maintenance of order) appear to exist—notably biological and
cultural evolution. Is this reason for complacency? Note the point that with
the accelerating pace of cultural evolution, the cost of errors may render
“trial and error” progress worthless. (p. 327)
6. Explain how it is that long time delays,
exponential growth, and irreversible damage may lead to ecological overshoot
and collapse. (with reference to Meadows et al. on pp. 329-330)
7. Make (and support) a personal prediction
regarding how humanity will respond to the expected discontinuities (sharp and
significant global changes) that lie ahead. (p. 336)
8. It is important that you understand the
policy guidelines in Table 12-1. Pick one of them and outline how you could be
(or currently are) involved in implementation. (pp. 337-338)
9. Take a careful, analytical look at Table
12-2 (p. 339). Do you think these steps will effectively address the problems
of long time delays and catastrophic-irreversible environmental ecological
damage?