ADVANCED PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY
Psychology 572 Spring, 2003
Dr. John M. Morgan Monday & Wednesday, 8am to 9:20
Harry Griffith Hall, 119
Marijuana- Physiological (whole body) changes and primary behavior changes
By: Jennifer Polse
Cannabis has been around for longer than many may believe. There is
reference to cannabis in a pharmacy book written in 2737 B.C. by a Chinese
emperor. In those days it was recommended for female weakness, gout,
rheumatism, malaria, beriberi, constipation and absent-mindedness. Ray and
Ksir (1999) report that in by A.D. 1000, social use of cannabis had reached
North Africa. It is said that by the 1830's and 1840's everybody was using,
thinking or criticizing the use of hashish and marijuana. Marijuana and
hashish began to be used to study psychological processes. Ray and Ksir state
that in 1899, a psychologist who was using cannabis in experiments said, "To
the psychologist it (cannabis) was as useful as the microscope to the naturalist;
it magnifies psychological states and in this way is an aid to its study".
In 1935 there were 36 states with laws regulating the use, sale, and/or
possession of marijuana. During the end of 1936 all 48 states had similar laws.
Marijuana use became extremely prevalent in the 1930's and concern began to
arise. Scientific America reported in March 1936 that, "Marijuana produces a
wide variety of symptoms in the user, including hilarity, swooning, and sexual
excitement. Combined with intoxicants, it often makes the smoker vicious,
with a desire to fight and kill".
In 1937 the Marijuana Tax Act was passed. This law stated that it did
not outlaw cannabis or its preparation, although it did tax the grower,
distributor, seller and buyer. In May of 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court
declared the Marijuana Tax Act unconstitutional
Marijuana is the dried buds and leaves of the Cannabis sativa plant.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that marijuana is a green,
brown, or gray mixture of dried, shredded leaves, stems, and flowers of the
hemp plant. Some street names that you may run across are bud, herb, ganja,
hydro, Mary Jane, pot, weed, grass, boom, chronic, and doja. Marijuana or
Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States.
According to the Computer Industry Almanac last year, more than 71 million
Americans over the age of 12 admitted that they had used marijuana at least
once in their lifetime, and 11 million are regular users. There are other forms
of marijuana including sinsemilla, hashish, and hash oil. All the forms of
marijuana are mind altering. All types of marijuana contain THC(delta-9-
tetrahydrocannabinol) the main active chemical in marijuana.
Marijuana is known to have a variety of physiological effects. Some of
the physiological effects are said to be quite benign. The most commonly
reported is an increase in heart pulse rate. According to the Schaffer Library of
Drug Policy, a slight increase in systolic blood pressure was seen at a high dose
of marijuana use. Within a few hours these cardiovascular effects disappeared.
Tachycardia, which is a brisk increase in heart rate, is the primary effect of
marijuana use on the heart. This can also cause an increase in blood pressure.
Cannabis is also known to induce a swelling of the minor conjuctival blood
vessels in the membranes around the eyes. Slight edema and puffing around
the eyes has also been reported. Salivation was shown to be significantly
decreased. The Canadian Government Commission of Inquiry report that
appetite is usually stimulated but not as often as commonly believed. Muscle
strength is thought to decrease with a high dose of cannabis.
Ray and Ksir (1999) report that except for bronchodilation chronic
marijuana use has little effect on breathing as measured by conventional
pulmonary tests. They also report that marijuana use causes changes in the
heart and circulation that look similar to characteristics of stress. Due to the
effect on the heart those people with hypertension, cerebrovascular disease and
coronary atherosclerosis should not use marijuana.
As well as effects on the heart, marijuana effects the lungs. It has been
said that there are over 400 chemicals in marijuana. The National Institute on
Drug Abuse reports that marijuana use as well as tobacco use may result in
chronic cough, sputum production or a wheeze. Although marijuana and
tobacco use affect the lungs in different ways. According to Whitman
University, tobacco smoke causes degeneration of the peripheral airways and
alveolated regions of the lung. Marijuana smoke affects the large pathways.
As well as physiological effects of marijuana there are also behavioral
effects. Ray and Ksir discuss the marijuana smoking experience. "The initial
effects are often somewhat stimulating and, in some individuals, may elicit
mild tension or anxiety, which usually is replaced by a pleasant feeling of well
being." Sense perception may be improved in intensity and in scope. Imagery
is said to be stronger and there are changes in perception of space and time.
There are also changes in psychological processes when using marijuana, such
as understanding, memory, emotion, and sense of identity.
A major behavior change in a marijuana user is the panic reaction. The
reaction may be similar to hallucinogens, in the sense that there is a fear of loss
of control as well as a fear that things will not go back to normal. According to
Ray and Ksir (1999) the best treatment for panic attacks due to marijuana use
is "talking down and to remind the person of who and where they are, that
their reaction is temporary, and that everything will be alright".
In 1971 an amotivational syndrome was identified in marijuana users.
There has been evidence in regular marijuana users for diminished motivation,
impairment ability to learn, and school and family problems. According to
Smith and Seymour (as cited in Ray and Ksir, 1999) if you stop smoking and
remain in counseling, the amotivational syndrome will improve.
Kouri, Pope, and Lukas (1999) investigated the pattern and duration of
changes in aggressive behavior in long term marijuana users during a 28-day
abstinence period. The participants were between the ages of 30 and 55 and
there were a total of 37. A control group was used which consisted of 20 of
those participants. The participants use was monitored by daily urine samples.
Long-term use was described as someone who had smoked marijuana on at
least 5000 occasions (the equivalent of smoking daily for 14 years) and who
were smoking regularly when recruited. The participants were studied on their
first day when they had still been smoking then one day 1, 3, 7, and 28 of a
28-day detoxification period. The results showed that chronic marijuana users
demonstrated more aggressive behavior on days 3 and 7 of marijuana
abstinence (Kouri, Pope, & Lukas). The article concluded that there is an
abstinence syndrome associated with chronic marijuana use. It is also shown
that aggressive behavior should be a component of this syndrome.
The most consistent effect of marijuana is on short term memory. This
has to do with tasks related to learning and recalling new information or
remembering a sequence of directions. There has also been findings that report
marijuana causes impairment in the ability to engage in tracking behavior.
According to Ray and Ksir, tracking behavior requires sustained attention.
A study examined reports of intoxication and measured physiological
changes from experienced users smoking marijuana and placebo cigarettes.
Due to the development of tolerance, chronic users would show more effect
with a placebo cigarette than a new marijuana user. Those who use the drug
constantly would get the feelings associated with the use of marijuana.
There is concern over reproductive effects on men and women. It is
known that heavy marijuana use can decrease testosterone levels in men yet
still keep them at the normal range. It has been reported that chronic use by
pregnant women can result in either low birth weight or shorter length at birth.
The National Institute of Drug Abuse reports that use while pregnant can also
result in smaller head sizes in infants. Smaller babies are more likely to
develop health problems. There is also research that shows nervous system
problems on children of mothers who smoke marijuana.
Many of the physiological effects of marijuana have not been thought to
be a threat to one's health. One concern though, is that as the marijuana-using
population ages, there may be concern with high blood pressure, heart disease,
or hardening of the arteries that may be harmed by marijuana use. The lethal
dose (LD) of THC, the active ingredient in marijuana has not been found, and
no human deaths have been reported due to an overdose of cannabis. Schaffer
Library of Drug Policy report that from the point of view of lethal toxicity,
cannabis is considered one of the safest drugs in either medical or non medical
use today. They also report that the evidence on physiological effects of
chronic use of cannabis is limited, varied and conflicting.
People may wonder whether you can become addicted to marijuana.
According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse the answer is yes. They
report that not everyone who uses marijuana becomes addicted. It is
important to pay attention to a user when they begin to seek out and take the
drug compulsively, that person may be dependent or addicted to the drug. In
1995, 165,000 people who entered a drug treatment program reported that
marijuana was their primary drug of abuse. If a person wants to quit using
marijuana there are treatment programs all over the world that are designed for
recovery with marijuana addiction.
References
Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. Cannabis. Retrieved April 15, 2003 from
http://www.druglibrary.org
How marijuana works. Retrieved on April 15, 2003 from
http://www.howstuffworks.com/marijuana.htm
Kouri, E. M., Pope Jr, H. G., & Lukas, S. E. (1999) Changes in aggressive
behavior during withdrawal from long term marijuana use.
Psychopharmacology, 143, 302-308.
National Institute of Drug Abuse. Marijuana facts for teens. Retrieved
April 16, 2003 from http://www.nida.nih.gov
Physiological effects of cannabis consumption. Retrieved on April 15,
2003 from http://www.whitman.edu/biology/
Stuproj/YoungB/physio.html.
Ray, O., & Ksir, C. (1999). Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior (8th ed.).
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Marijuana, its Chemistry and Route of Access
Elijah Gildea
Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States.
It comes from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa, and is usually dry, shredded,
green/brown, mix of flowers, stems, seeds and leaves. It is usually smoked as a
cigarette (joint), or in a pipe also known as a bong. It is also smoked in blunts,
which are cigars that have been emptied of tobacco and refilled with marijuana.
Blunts are often combined with other drugs. Additional methods of use
include mixing with food or by brewing as tea (How Marijuana Works, 2003).
The primary active ingredient in marijuana is THC (delta-9-
tetrahydrocannabinol), which is derived from the hemp plant, cannabis sativa.
The THC is concentrated in the resin of the plant, mostly in the flowering
tops. The psychoactive potency of a cannabis preparation depends on the
amount of resin present and therefore varies. This plant includes hundreds of
chemical agents (426), and may have 60 or more cannabinoids. These
compounds are unique to cannabis and synergistically work to produce the
psychoactive effect (Dewey, 1986).
A more concentrated form is known as hashish. Hashish is a sticky
black liquid, in pure form, is pure resin. Depending on how carefully the resin
has been separated, will give a more or less of a pure resin. The THC content
varies from about 7 percent to 14 percent.
An additional potent preparation is traditionally called ganja. It consists
of the tops of female plants. The male plants are removed so the female plants
are not losing energy to production of seeds. This increases the potency of the
female plant. This process is known as sinsemilla. Sinsemilla samples from the
United States also vary. There THC content ranges from 4 to 5 percent but
may max out at 8 percent. There have been reports of levels reaching 10 and
11 percent.
However, due to many variables such as different smoking styles and
different routes of access, the amount of THC absorbed also varies. One
example mentioned by Palfai and Jankiewicz (2001), suggests that people who
are experienced smokers can hold smoke in their lungs longer and absorb more
THC. When smoked, THC is rapidly absorbed through the lungs and then
stored in fatty tissue, because it is a highly lipid-soluble. It is also rapidly
absorbed into the blood and distributed first into the brain, then redistributed
into the rest of the body. Peak Plasma levels are shown along with
psychological and cardiovascular effects as quickly as 5 to 10 minutes.
Physiological and subjective effects peak in about a half an hour and may last
for 2 to 3 hours. The remaining THC in the blood has a half-life of about 19
hours, while metabolites primarily 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC, are formed in the
liver and have a half-life of about 50 hours. 25 to 30 percent of the THC and
its metabolites remain in the body after one week. In some cases it may take
up to 2 to 3 weeks for complete elimination (Ray & Ksir, 1999).
Another common route of access for marijuana is through the mouth
when eaten. When eaten, the effects of THC are three times less. This
method of use is slow and incomplete because small amounts of the drug
actually reach the brain. The onset is delayed, compared to when it is smoked,
and may take up to an hour. Peak plasma levels and peak effects are reached 2
to 3 hours after administration. The duration of action can last for 3 to 5 or
more hours.
Minutes after, THC is redistributed into fatty tissues and other parts of
the central nervous system. It accumulates in the liver, Kidneys, spleen, lungs
and testes. Metabolism then takes place in the liver where THC is rapidly
biotransformed into to an active metabolite with identical effects (Palfai &
Jankiewicz, 2001).
The pharmacology of the cannabinoid chemicals is complex. Extracting
the active ingredient is difficult even today. One reason for the uniqueness of
cannabis is that it lacks any nitrogen, prohibiting it from being labeled as an
alkaloid. As mentioned before there are over 400 different chemicals in
marijuana and 61 of them are unique to the cannabis plant. THC was isolated
and synthesized in 1964. The major active metabolite in the body of THC is
11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC.
In 1988, a significant breakthrough was found by researchers at the
NIMH laboratories. They developed a technique to identify and measure
binding sites for THC and related compounds in rat brains. Another
important finding in 1992 was the discovery of the naturally occurring
substance in the body which was called anadamide, and had marijuana-like
effects (Ray & Ksir 1999). Anandamide fits neatly into the THC receptor.
Cannabinoid receptors are then activated by anandamide. THC mimics the
actions of anandamide, binding with cannaboid receptors and activating
neurons, which affects the mind and body (Bonsor, 2003).
There are several locations where cannabinoid receptors are
concentrated. They have effects on several mental and physical activities.
They include short-term memory, coordination, learning and problem solving.
High concentrations of cannabinoid receptors exist in the hippocampus,
cerebellum, and basal ganglia. The hippocampus is located within the temperal
lobe and is identified with short-term memory. When THC binds with the
cannabinoid receptors inside the hippocampus, it interferes with the
recollection of recent events. THC also affects coordination, which is
controlled by the cerebellum. The basil ganglia controls muscle movements,
which is another reason why motor coordination is impaired (Bonsor, 2003).
THC is very similar to a family of chemicals known as the endogenous
cannabinoids. They are natural cannabis like chemicals. The THC molecule is
shaped like the endogenous cannabinoids, and can interact with the same
receptors on nerve cells. These influence many of the same processes.
Overall, the primary active ingredient in marijuana is THC. There are
varying degrees of potency and due to type of use and use of the plant and
route of access. The major uses mentioned were smoking, which varied by
user, potency of substance, and the way that it was smoked. Another variance
is hashish, which in pure form is a resin and is very potent. Sinsemilla is an
additional method which brings variance and some potency to the user.
Finally another popular use of marijuana is eating it in certain food mixtures.
Use causes over stimulation of the cannabinoid receptors and is a cause of
disruption to the endogenous cannabinoids' normal control. This
overstimulation produces the intoxication which is experienced by the user
(NIDA).
Bonsor, K. (n.d.) How marijuana works. Retrieved May 4, 2003, from
http://www.howstuffworks.com/marijuana.htm
Dewey, W.L. (1986). Cannabinol pharmacology. Pharmological Reviews, 38,
151-178
How marijuana works, the plant (2003). Retrieved May 4, 2003, from
http://www.howstuffworks.com/marijuan.htm
NIDA (National Institute on Drug Abuse). InfoFacts: Marijuana. Retrieved
March 26, 2003 from http://www.nida.hih.gov.Infofax/marijuana.html
Palfai, T. & Jankiewicz, H. (2001). Drugs and Human Behavior (2nd.). New
York: McGraw Hill.
Ray, O. & Ksir, C. (1999). Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior (8th.). New
York: McGraw Hill
Psychology 572 Kory Eggert
Dr. John M. Morgan May 7, 2003
Marijuana: Side Effect Behavior Changes
and Effects Reported by Users and/or Survivors of Use
Several side effects related to the short- and long-term use of marijuana
were detailed on the website for the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA,
2003). The short-term effects of marijuana use that were noted include:
problems with memory and learning, distorted perception, difficulty in
thinking and problem solving, loss of coordination, and increased heart rate.
"One study has indicated that a user's risk of heart attack more than
quadruples in the first hour after smoking marijuana"(NIDA). The effects of
long-term use involve changes in the brain similar to those seen after long-term
use of other major drugs of abuse. In animal studies, and during the
withdrawal after chronic exposure to the drug, these changes in the brain were
seen as an increase in the activation of the stress-response system, and as
changes in the activity of nerve cells containing dopamine.
NIDA notes that marijuana can posses an addictive potential for some
people. A craving for marijuana and a marijuana withdrawal syndrome can
result from its use. Some of the symptoms of this syndrome that have been
reported include: irritability, loss of appetite, restlessness, insomnia, anxiety,
and increased aggression. The use of marijuana can thus become compulsive,
and can interfere with family, school, work, and recreational activities; and it
can cause physical and psychological problems. In the case of addiction,
marijuana use will continue despite the user's knowledge of these adverse
effects.
According to NIDA, Marijuana also has effects on the lungs. One study
found that participants who smoked marijuana frequently, and who did not
also smoke tobacco, had more health problems and missed more days of work
than did those who did not smoke marijuana. Respiratory illness was cited as
the reason for many of the extra missed days. Some other related effects of
smoking marijuana include: burning and stinging of the mouth and throat, a
heavy and/or daily cough, phlegm production, a greater frequency of frequent
acute chest illness, a heightened risk of lung infections, a greater tendency to
have obstructed airways, an impaired immune system, and possibly, a two to
three times greater risk for developing cancer of the respiratory tract, lungs,
head, or neck.
Also mentioned by NIDA as being related to the adverse health effects
of marijuana use, is its association with depression, anxiety, and personality
disturbances. It has been indicated through research that marijuana use may
potentially cause problems in one's daily life, make a person's existing
problems worse, or compromise the ability of users to learn and remember
information for days or weeks. This last effect may then be related to one
falling behind in the areas of accumulating intellectual, job, or social skills.
NIDA discusses studies that have shown students who smoke marijuana
get lower grades, score lower on standardized tests, and are less likely to
graduate from high school than those students who do not smoke marijuana.
Additionally, in a study of college students who were heavy marijuana users, it
was found that skills related to attention, memory, and learning were
significantly impaired, thus leaving them functioning at a reduced intellectual
level for at least twenty-four hours following their last use. A related study
found the impairment in cognitive functioning to last for one week after
quitting, but that within four weeks after stopping the use of marijuana, this
functioning returned to normal levels.
Related to the workplace, NIDA describes studies, which have found
that those who smoke marijuana are more likely than their co-workers to have
problems on the job. These job-related problems included: increased absences,
tardiness, accidents, worker's compensation claims, job turnover, leaving work
without permission, daydreaming, spending time at work on personal matters,
and shirking tasks.
Finally, research exploring the effects of marijuana on babies born to
mothers who used the drug during pregnancy was also cited on the NIDA
website. These findings indicated that this type of drug use resulted in
negative effects on the child, which begin in infancy and remain into the
school years. At birth, these negative effects include: altered responses to
visual stimuli, increased tremulousness, and a high-pitched cry. During infancy
and the preschool years, these effects can include: more behavioral problems
than their peers, and poorer performance on tasks of visual perception,
language comprehension, sustained attention, and memory. For the school-
aged child, these effects can include: a greater likelihood to exhibit deficits in
decision-making skills, memory, and the ability to remain attentive.
Another important area related to the use of marijuana is its association
with amotivational effects, or the amotivational syndrome. This topic is
addressed in a study by Cherek, Lane, and Dougherty (2002). The
amotivational syndrome has been described by the authors as a set of
characteristics that have frequently been associated with chronic marijuana
use. These characteristics include: general apathy, loss of productivity,
difficulty in carrying out long-range plans, lethargy, depression, and an
inability to concentrate or to sustain attention. The results of this study did
indicate that a reduced motivation followed marijuana smoking.
In a study by Flory, Lynam, Milich, Leukefeld, and Clayton (2002), the
relationship between personality factors, psychopathology, and marijuana and
alcohol abuse was examined. Related to marijuana use, their results indicated
that an individual with symptoms of marijuana abuse, and without comorbid
psychopathology, can be characterized as rather introverted and shy, but open
to new sensations and experiences. The specific factors with which they found
symptoms of marijuana abuse to have a relationship were lower scores on the
factors of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness, and higher scores on the factor
of Openness to Experience.
Through personal interviews, the following perspectives and experiences
were reported to myself from four separate individuals regarding their use of
marijuana:
"Different types of herb give me a different type of feeling. Sometimes I
feel happy- floaty- lazy- active- or hungry." -Anonymous.
"Sometimes it feels like an overwhelming calm feeling, or sometimes like
an anxious paranoid feeling- like a racing head. It depends on the pot. It
consumed our life. It didn't impair us. It fit okay in my life. The paranoia
that now comes keeps me from smoking pot like I used to."
-Anonymous.
"Yeah, it makes me hungry. I don't know." -Anonymous.
"At first, it is fun. You feel happy, giddy, you're laughing, and your use
is sporadic. Then you begin using it more and it affects your physical health
and clouds your consciousness. In the mind, I think it depletes the amount of
dopamine, so over time, you have to use more to get the same high or feeling
of okayness. It makes you stupid, and it ruins your short-term memory. Your
quality of life goes down and your behavior changes. You spend your money
on it and become less able to enjoy yourself in social settings. It actually
diminishes the quality of life and changes your personality. You become
someone else; you are not yourself. It can be used for medical purposes, but
should be ingested without smoking it because that is harmful." -Anonymous.
References
Anonymous (personal communication, March 30, 2003)
Anonymous (personal communication, March 30, 2003)
Anonymous (personal communication, March 30, 2003)
Anonymous (personal communication, March 30, 2003)
Cherek, D.R., Lane, S.D., & Dougherty, D.M. (2002). Possible
amotivational effects following marijuana smoking under
laboratory conditions. Experimental and Clinical
Psychopharmacology, 10(1), 26-38.
Flory, K., Lynam, D., Milich, R., Leukefeld, C., & Clayton,
R. (2002). The relations among personality, symptoms of
alcohol and marijuana abuse, and symptoms of comorbid
psychopathology: Results from a community sample.
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(4), 425-434.
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2003, January 31).
Marijuana. Retrieved March 30, 2003, from
http://www.nida.nih.gov/
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Copyright © 2003, Dr. John M. Morgan, All rights reserved -
This page last edited 25-Apr, 2003
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