What is Clinical Supervision?
In its simplest form, clinical supervision includes:
a) a conference with the student teacher to proview objectives and the lesson plan,
b) direct observation of the lesson, and
c) a follow-up conference with the student, with feedback on strengths and areas of improvement.
What is the theory behind clinical supervision?
A successful student teaching experience is the keystone of pre-service teacher preparation. Clinical supervision is a means of ensuring that student teaching is carried out most effectively through systematic planning, observation, and feedback. The clinical supervision model is designed to help teachers grow. It systematically builds on strengths while eliminating counterproductive approaches. It recognizes that each student teacher is different. No candidate will be a carbon copy of "the ideal teacher" or teach every lesson exactly according to a given model. Clinical supervision develops the student teacher's ability to reflect on experience and apply principles and concepts to self-improvement efforts.
Three actors must play their roles well for clinical supervision to succeed. The student teacher must plan lessons early enough that the supervisor and master teacher can review them before class. The master teacher and supervisor must find compatible strategies in supporting the student teacher. When clinical supervision is a cooperative endeavor, the results can be rewarding to all.
What is the process of clinical supervision?
Clinical supervision is a continuous series of cycles in which the supervisor assists the student teacher in developing ever more successful instructional strategies (not necessarily the mentor's pet methods). The approach was first published by Goldhammer (1969) and Cogan (1973) but effective supervisors had been using similar methods for some time. In Clinical Supervision: A State of the Art Review (ASCD, 1980), Cheryl Sullivan describes clinical supervision as an eight-phase cycle of instructional improvement:
1) Supervisor establishes the clinical relationship with the teacher by explaining the purpose and sequence of clinical supervision. (No secrets; this is not "snoopervision.")
2) Planning of the lesson(s), either independently by the student teacher or jointly.
3) Discussion/evaluation of the lesson plan.
4) Observation of the lesson, recording of appropriate data.
5) Teacher and supervisor analyze the teaching/learning process, especially "critical incidents and pattern analysis." Questions are preferable to lectures: "Why do you think the students started to talk when you . . . ?" (Step 5 should follow the observation as soon as possible so that both participants have a clear recollection of what happened.)
6) Teacher makes decisions about his/her behavior and the students' behaviors and learning.
7) Supervisor and teacher decide on changes sought in the teacher's behavior, then create a plan for implementing the changes.
8) Arrangements for the next pre-observation conference.
Obviously these may be modified, but the significant elements of each should be addressed. The process is assessment-formative, not summary-evaluative. Subsequent evaluation may be based on progress toward the goals set in the post-observation conference.
In the pre-observation conference, the objectives of the lesson will be established. During observation, the supervisor will record performance and pupil response in relation to the objectives. The supervisor will also note critical incidents that impact on teaching effectiveness. In the pre-observation conference, the student teacher may ask the supervisor to watch for particular things.
The supervisor may want to delay discussing all the negative aspects of the student teacher's performance in the first session. A person can handle only so much criticism at one time. This is especially true when using videotaped reviews, where the student teacher may see many things that are wrong. The role of the supervisor is to support the teacher and point out what went well rather than dwelling too long on the errors. As student teaching progresses, and the major problems have been addressed, there will be time to introduce secondary considerations.
There are many methods for recording observations. Ned Flanders' interaction analysis methodology is appropriate. One useful book is Keith Acheson and Meredith Gall's Techniques in the Clinical Supervision of Teachers (Longman, 1987).
When clinical supervision was first introduced, participants said, "Fine. Now what should I look for as the critical incidents of teaching?" Since direct instruction is the most common teaching strategy, and since Madeline Hunter's seven-step model is an effective direct-instruction model, the Hunter model was provided. However, some supervisors tried to make it fit where it wasn't appropriate, resulting in an undeserved negative reputation for clinical supervision. The Association of California School Administrators (ACSA), recognizing this problem, published A Practical Guide for Instructional Supervision: A Tool for Administrators and Supervisors. This excellent handbook contains ten models describing a range of the more useful teaching strategies. Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil's Models of Teaching (Prentice-Hall, 1987) describes more than eighty strategies.
More than 130 lesson plan models have been identified, each appropriate to certain teaching objectives. The California Department of Education identifies these models within four families (same as Joyce and Weil's, with different titles):
Behavioral Transmits the culture by teaching skills and knowledge. Strategies: direct instruction, written language.
Social Interaction Teaches social skills and communication. Strategies: cooperative learning, group discussion, total physical response.
Generative Develops internal resources to see things in new ways. Strategies: brainstorming, synectics.
Cognitive Improves logical thinking processes, develops thoughtful citizens through critical thinking. Strategies: concept attainment inquiry, math problem solving.
The supervisor should determine whether the model chosen is appropriate for the student teacher's objectives. [For more examples of appropriate modelspress here.]
Continue to the role of the School Site Administrator [page 29 of the Handbook]
